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Journal of Aerospace Engineering 29 5 , , Colloid and Polymer Science 9 , , Nanoscience and Technology: An International Journal 9 3 , Multidiscipline Modeling in Materials and Structures , International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering 17 1 , About The Book Mass Transfer. Mass transfer operations are of great importance in a process industry as it has a direct impact on the cost of the final product. Explains the theoretical concepts with full derivation of equations.

Illustrates the application of theory through worked-out numerical examples. Provides exercise problems with answers at the end of each chapter for practice. Foreword Preface Acknowledgements 1. Organizational behaviour sets out to explain the relationships between variables. However, it does not provide an intention to prescribe the relationships or interactions between variables that should exist. This distinction is inevitable because when dealing with human behaviour at any level one is concerned with probability rather than certainty.

In other words, no two people would react to a situation in exactly the same way, and even the same person might react differently on different occasions. Chapter 1 What is organizational behaviour? The areas of interest falling within the subject of organizational behaviour can be most easily reflected in a diagram, Figure 1. Rather than make Figure 1. Each section within this book takes as its focus one aspect of organizational behaviour.

Compartmentalization is a convenient means of considering complex material from a teaching and learning perspective. However, the reality of organizational behaviour is that there are considerable and significant interdependencies and interrelationships between all the topics discussed. People within an organization are invariably trained to carry out their specific job responsibilities. But this tends to be a practical or technical process, involving learning how to do the job, whether that be in sales, marketing, finance, computers or whatever.

But the technical aspects of any job represent only a small part of any work activity. Very few people have no contact with other people as part of the work that they do. People work in teams, or small groups within a department; they have customers and suppliers inside and outside of the organization and they have superiors and subordinates to report to and control.

The resulting webs of relationships can be both formal and informal in nature, but they all involve other people. Most jobs involve some degree of persuading people to co-operate with some priority, action, or request involving a degree of inconvenience to themselves. As a manager it is necessary to deal with problem employees not everyone co-operates all of the time , or with other managers who are seeking to advance their careers and are therefore in competition for more senior appointments.

It is also necessary these days for managers to be able to improve consistently the operational performance of their departments in the constant drive for higher productivity. The world of work is constantly changing. This is an ongoing process and is unlikely to end. The actual changes that occur within an organization might be large or small, but they are all changes.

If one employee retires, leaves or is promoted to another job several things will change as a direct consequence. The work to be done will probably remain the same, but the new person might do it in a slightly different way. The new person will also be different to the person who last did the job and so the interpersonal relationships within the work group will change to some extent.

In addition, managers might take the opportunity of someone leaving to restructure the work being done and even the department, thereby creating major change for the people remaining within the company. At an organizational level, change can be brought about as a result of product or market activity, mergers or acquisitions, or simply through the appointment of a new chief executive officer who will want to establish their reputation by significantly improving profit levels.

It should be apparent from this brief discussion that working successfully within an organization at any level involves a wide range of competencies beyond those required to carry out the technical aspects of a job. Therefore, the simple answer is that you should study organizational behaviour in order to understand better the complexities of the world of work.

However, that is not the only reason to study it. It is not possible, as has already been suggested, for organizational behaviour as a discipline to be prescriptive in setting out exactly what to do in specific situations. Life is never that simple and there are always many more variables active in any situation than could make that a realistic possibility. Equally, as will become apparent the more that you study the subject, there are many different theoretical perspectives that need to be taken into account.

Studying organizational behaviour helps to understand and come to terms with the ambiguities that exist in the social world and to be more able to work with and around those uncertainties in whatever work experience you encounter. People are the most fascinating and frustrating aspect of any organizational experience, yet no organization could exist without them.

It is human beings who establish organizations and run them; it is human beings who work inside them and who are the customers and suppliers of these same organizations. We cannot escape organizations or other people at any stage of our life, indeed it would not be a real life if we Chapter 1 How to study organizational behaviour were able to do so. Therefore, it is an area worth studying for its own interest in order to understand better how human beings interface with organizations as well as to be able to better survive the experience of doing so.

It is not a passive subject, it responds to involvement and active participation. Think about the organizations that you have encountered in your life. They include, schools, colleges, shops and supermarkets, television and other media publishers including, newspaper, magazine and book publishers, cinema and theatre production companies, mobile phone companies to mention just a few. They all have people working within them, including managers and employees.

They all impact on you in some way or another. In so doing you encountered the school staff who taught you, but the system also included the local authority support staff and education department managers who were responsible, along with the head-teacher, for ensuring that the school met the objectives set for it.

Think about the jobs that you have had during your career. As such you were or are an employee, or an associate as some organizations now prefer to call employees. Perhaps you were one of the special category of employee called a manager.

Whatever your experience of organizations, you have more direct experience than you perhaps realize. Consider the experience that you do have and bring it with you when you read and interact with the material in this book. For example, did you manage other people if you were a manager; or how were you managed if you were an employee?

Was it simply a process of giving and following orders, or did it involve more subtlety than that? What about any experience as a student working part-time in a supermarket. Perhaps you have had several such jobs, was the style of management different across the organizations that you worked for?

If so why and what difference did it make to how you worked and how effectively the customer was served? These experiences can all add to the material that is presented to you in this book, and which will be introduced to you by the staff teaching your particular module. Also consider examples of management practice that you read about in magazines and the press.

For example, Management in Action 1. Also consider the movies, computer games, novels and magazines that you read. The stories and games that you read and engage in are usually based around some form of organization. What can you learn about the ways in which human beings interface with organizations from these sources?

For example, a spy thriller might include aspects of how the undercover agent has not only to deal with danger and opponents who are trying to kill them, but also how to deal with the civil service bureaucracy in obtaining new gadgets and equipment for use in field operations.

The biography of a political leader might also provide interesting insights into the politics and power issues that inevitably need to be dealt with by any manager seeking to compete with other managers for scarce resources. So many parts of your life involving both current and previous experience, have prepared you to study organizational behaviour. As part of the second interview process, job candidates are expected to work in a shop for part of the day.

The team that they work with then make the decision as to whether the candidate should be offered work. Reducing labour turnover had many advantages, but chiefly it would allow the growth in the number of retail outlets owned by the company from , employing people in to shops employing about staff by That in turn meant that the new recruit would be more likely to stay with the company for a longer time.

This is intended to encourage team building and a mutually supportive working environment in the shops. Staff are also allowed to audit the performance bonus of managers as part of a process of encouraging good staff relations. Senior managers are also required to spend 10 days each year working in the shops making sandwiches to ensure that they stay in touch with the basics of the business and to experience the daily challenges facing shop staff.

What does this example suggest about the differences between being a manager and being an employee, together with the relative responsibilities of both in running a business?

Would this approach work successfully in all organizations? This provides a fertile basis for research activity as well as the opportunity for the parallel existence of competing explanations. The main research approaches will be explored more fully in Chapter 2, but it is worth considering for a moment the main research approaches that are available through which to create knowledge and theory.

In attempting to understand organizations as entities in their own right and management as one form of human activity within that context, it is necessary to be able to offer explanations that stand up to critical evaluation and replication. The Chapter 1 Research and organizational behaviour [9] natural sciences have developed mechanisms over many centuries that are able to meet that need. However, the primary difficulty for organization or management research is that it is not possible to isolate the key variables and replicate organizational functioning in the laboratory.

Study of these phenomena therefore rests firmly within the social science arena. It is frequently suggested that the study of organizations and management provides many competing theories but is unable to offer clear guidance to practitioners. For example, there are many theories of motivation, but on what basis should a manager choose between them? It is only within the last years that writings in management encompassed more than merely a reflection of the experience of practitioners offering their own recipes for success or an intuitive analysis of organizational functioning.

It is hardly surprising that the study of management and organizations is still comparatively unsophisticated and crude in its ability to offer comprehensive explanations. The study of people and organizations is different from the study of the physical properties of metal or chemical reactions.

However, that does not mean that it is impossible to apply the principles of scientific enquiry into social areas. For example, there are many psychologists working at the micro level of human behaviour that provide robust scientific explanations for aspects of it. Theories developed in this way are frequently based on laboratory studies in which much care is taken over the control of variables and other conditions.

The difficulty comes from the need to extrapolate adequately from laboratory conditions to the complexity and richness of human experience within an organizational concept. Consider as an example a laboratory experiment in which decision-making strategies among managers were to be investigated.

Variables such as the decision-making topic, characteristics of the individuals concerned, restrictions on extraneous factors and time limits could all be controlled and accounted for. Equally, the measurement of the process could take a number of forms. For example, the actual decision made, time taken to reach a decision, individual interaction patterns and information used in the process.

However, it is difficult to be certain what such an experiment indicates about decision making by real managers in real organizations in real time and, perhaps more important, dealing with real problems with real outcomes. There are so many additional variables that can influence decision making in practice.

Power, control, politics and the dynamics of organizational experience cannot be totally accounted for in a laboratory experiment. The experience of the world around each and every human being is dependent upon their ability to undertake three activities: 1. It is first necessary to be aware of the objects and situations outside the individual that provide the form for reality.

This requires the input of information to the individual through the senses of hearing, sight and so on. However, the human senses are not aware of all possible stimuli available.

For example, we cannot detect radio waves or see very well in the dark. Having detected the existence of things around the individual it is then necessary to impose meaning onto them. As a simple example consider the act of seeing a motor car.

The reality of its being a motor car comes from the ability of the individual to add meaning and significance to the visual image from past experience and learning. The problems and consequences of this inability to apply an existing frame of reference to reality has been the basis of many science fiction books and films.

Having perceived a motor car then the implications arising from it can be predicted. For example, if the individual is attempting to cross a busy street then it should be avoided, as it could do great harm to them. So it is Frame of reference Internal frameworks held by an individual that informs their understanding of the world and how to relate to it. Without prior knowledge and experience of the object it would not be possible accurately to predict possible outcomes or develop an appropriate behavioural response.

Conditioned The behaviour of an individual which results from the application of behaviourism techniques. Paradigm A model based on particular assumptions about the nature of social science and of society. From that basis it is clear that reality is not something that exists in a purely physical form outside the individual, but as a social construction experienced within the mind of each individual.

The physical objects may be identical for all individuals in that situation, but their experience of them may be very different. Figure 1. Each person has only partial insight into the whole. One of the most frequently referenced works in this field is that of Berger and Luckmann in which they explore the sociology of knowledge.

Much of the possible variation in interpretation of stimuli is eliminated by the education and socialization processes to which all human beings are subjected as they develop within a particular society. In effect, we are conditioned how to see and interpret the world around us. When social scientists attempt to theorize about the world inhabited by human beings they are, to a very real extent, researching themselves as well.

When attempting to understand an interpretation of the social world offered by a researcher it is important to consider their perspective in relation to it.

However, this is able to offer only a partial insight into the perspective of the individual in question. The scientific process that forms the basis of the natural sciences is described in Figure 1. It demonstrates a circular process that allows for hypotheses to be developed from existing theory or understanding of the world.

In turn, these must be operationalized and subjected to some form of testing in order to verify or refute the theory being examined. A cyclical process of identifying and testing hypotheses leads to more generalizations about the world, which in turn leads to the development of more theory. The process reflected in Figure 1. In this paradigm the researcher would hold the view that an observable social reality existed and that the end product from the research would be the creation of law-like generalizations, applicable in every organizational and human context.

This is the perspective that suggests that the real world exists outside each human being and the laws that govern the social world are simply out there, waiting to be discovered. This can be contrasted to the paradigm that holds that the real world exists only in the mind of the individuals perceiving it. In that sense there will be considerable degrees of overlap in understanding between some individuals in the same situation, but there will also be considerable degrees of difference.

The world is socially constructed and meaning can only be identified in terms of the understandings of the actors in that situation. Experiments and the attempt to create law-like generalizations simply will not work in this paradigm.

The debate between these two paradigms can get acrimonious at times as the protagonists view research and the world in which it functions from diametrically opposing positions.

The debate is not just academic in essence, although that is the arena in which it is carried out. For if either side of the debate is ultimately correct, in the sense that the other is wrong, then a significant aspect of research becomes inappropriate and of no value in helping to explain or run organizations.

The debate also impacts on the choice of research approach that could and should be adopted. The deductive approach is based on the development of conceptual and theoretical structures before testing begins as a process of empirical observation through questionnaires, surveys, experiments, etc. By comparison, induction moves from observation to the provision of explanation.

It reflects the ethnographic, case study and participative enquiry Reason, approaches to research methodology. Another important feature of social science research is the level at which it is being carried out.

Essentially, the level in this context can be described as a scale running from macro to micro issues. There are five levels as follows: 1. This represents the micro level and takes as its focus of attention the individual within an organizational setting. This field is predominantly based on the work of psychologists. Issues such as perception, attitude formation, individual difference and motivation are common topics under this heading. Most human behaviour within an organization takes place in a group.

It is important therefore to understand how groups form and perform the work expected of them. Managers are individuals and they also operate in groups just like other employees. However, there are a number of distinctive features associated with management activities that make it worthy of special categorization.

For example, the nature, act and process of managing others are major areas of study. Typically, this would seek to address issues such as job design, structural frameworks and technology. Issues such as power, control, politics, conflict and change fall under this umbrella heading. They represent part of the dynamic of the ways in which organizations function as a small-scale version of society. They also reflect the environmental forces that act upon any organization and within which it must function.

In addition to the obvious differences between the natural and social sciences there is the ethical issue of carrying out research on human subjects.

Any of the research fields which involve human beings are faced with ethical problems. For example Finch discusses the need to be sensitive to how any output might be used in unintended ways which might betray the implied trust between researcher and subject when carrying out research grounded in the feminist tradition with other women.

From another field, chemists working in the field of new drug treatments inevitably reach a point at which they must be tested on human beings, which of course raises ethical issues. There are research guidelines on how human beings should be studied and by which researchers must abide if they are to attract funding and recognition for their work see, for example, the British Sociological Association, The primary difficulty presented by such requirements is that research subjects should knowingly participate and should not be subjected to risk, harm or damage in any way as a result of the process.

The challenge for researchers under these conditions is to develop and test theory or otherwise create understanding in such a way that it is not affected by the subjects knowing that they are being studied, or at the very least that they give their informed consent to the process.

Reason , p 1 goes so far as to suggest that research should be carried out with people, not on them. The basic problem is how the behaviour of the subjects might have changed as a result of knowing that they were being studied. This however is only one of the problems in the research process. For example, how might the presence of the researcher influence the behaviour that they Chapter 1 A first look at organizations are seeking to record and understand? Again, to what extent does any response from a subject simply reflect what that person feels the researcher wishes to hear, rather than their true opinion?

However, there are many bodies that bear a strong similarity to commercial organizations but which are undeniably different in function or purpose. For example, is the Church of England or any other religious grouping an organization in the same way that IBM is? No two commercial organizations are the same. A number of the variables identified in Figure 1. For example, it is not unusual for some owners to restrict the growth of their organization deliberately in order to retain direct involvement in running the business.

The physical size of an organization is a major determinant of how it appears. The small corner shop selling a range of grocery items and sweets, employing two people would be vastly different in appearance from a large national supermarket chain with many thousands of employees.

The size of an organization could also influence many of the other variables, such as the level of technology that it is able to support.

There is an apparent stability and security that comes from the appearance of age — financial institutions deliberately create this image. The age of an organization could also be expected to impact on many structural and functional issues. The nature of the product or service from which the organization derives its income is another primary determinant of its form. A company engaged in quarrying minerals would be expected to differ in many ways from a bank of roughly similar size and age.

The type and level of technology used by an organization is another variable that is both influenced by and influences the organization. The use of robotic assembly processes has reduced human involvement in the assembly of products such as motor vehicle and other consumer goods, thereby driving up productivity as well as influencing the profile of the organization.

The dominant style of management within the organization also influences the appearance that it presents to the outside world.

The use of hierarchical control through layers of supervision and management produces a tall, thin organizational form. This can be contrasted with the approach to management that relies on self-managed work teams and which would provide a flatter organization as a consequence.

The functional approach to organizational activity in which departments are organized around job expertise such as personnel, finance and production provides a very different appearance to one which is based upon product groupings with mixed operational teams.

The application of the same set of principles across every organization is doomed to failure because of the situational variety experienced in practice. Managers exercise a degree of preference and choice in designing their organizations. The larger the monetary resource available, the greater the degree of elaboration possible. The scale of finance available provides an opportunity to influence the form that individual organizations take. Issues such as the degree of individuality and formality influence work preferences and the way in which work is undertaken within an organization.

There is an inevitable tension within large international organizations between the need for a global corporate identity and the dominant culture within local operating environments.

The employees available to be employed within the organization also bring with them a wide range of variable characteristics that Chapter 1 A first look at organizations will influence the nature and profile of it. For example, education levels within the general population influences a broad range of issues including the way that high technology might be used.

The analysis under the above assumption is called lumped system analysis. The convective heat loss from the body shown aside has its magnitude equal to decrease in internal energy of solid. Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance Biot Number It is a non-dimensional parameter used to test the validity of the lumped heat capacity approach. The characteristic length Lc for some common shapes is given below: Plane Wall thickness 2L. This can be achieved by decreasing wire diameter, density and specific heat or by increasing value of h.

In other words, the temperature difference would be reduced by This reduction in Page The systems exhibiting above said conditions are considered to have negligible surface resistance An important application of this process is in heat treatment of metals by quenching, viz.

Mathematical formulation of this case is :. At this point the temperature remains unchanged. Mathematical formulation is :. A water pipe is to be buried in soil at sufficient depth from the surface to prevent freezing in winter. Also the pipe surface temperature should Page Condition : Tpipe wall should not fall below 0 C What burial depth is needed to prevent freezing of the pipe? Open navigation menu.

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Jump to Page. Search inside document. Fourier Law of Heat Conduction dT q dx qx k x The heat flux, q is directly proportional to temperature gradient The proportionality constant, k, is defined as the thermal conductivity, a thermo physical property.