Adulthood and aging cavanaugh 7th edition pdf free download

They believe their memory is not as good measure remembering. Gerontologists usually use one as it once was, so they both use various memory aids: of three approaches: observing systematically, using Leah tries to think of images in her mind to remember tasks to sample behavior, and asking people for self- her grocery list, whereas Sarah writes them down.

Leah reports. In addition, researchers need to be concerned and Sarah got into a discussion recently about which with how representative the participants in the study technique works better. You might be asking yourself why you need to Regardless of the kind of method chosen, research- know about research methods when you could just ers must show it is both reliable and valid.

The reliability Google the topic and find out all sorts of things about of a measure is the extent to which it provides a consis- it. A measure and everything else in between. The only way to tell of memory is reliable to the extent that it gives a consis- the difference is by knowing what makes good research tent estimate of performance each time you administer that results in trustworthy information. All measures used in gerontological research must Just as in any profession, gerontology has certain be shown to be reliable, or they cannot be used.

The tools of the trade that are used to ensure good research. For example, a mea- would have good validity to the extent it matched the sure of memory is valid only if it can be shown to actu- kinds of lists they actually use.

Validity often is established by showing that Self-Reports. When questions are posed a reliable measure of length but not a valid measure of in written form, the verbal report is a questionnaire; memory , researchers must ensure that measures are when they are posed verbally, it is an interview. Either both reliable and valid. For example, if you think imag- Systematic Observation.

As the name implies, sys- ery and lists are common ways people use to remem- tematic observation involves watching people and ber grocery items, you could devise a questionnaire carefully recording what they say or do. Two forms of and survey several people to find out. In naturalistic Although self-reports are very convenient and observation, people are observed as they behave spon- provide information on the topic of interest, they are taneously in some real-life situation.

People may not remember purchasing their items as a way to test how well they accurately what they did in the past, or they may report remember. Structured observations differ from naturalistic observations in that the researcher creates a setting Representative Sampling.

Researchers usually are that is particularly likely to elicit the behavior of inter- interested in broad groups of people called popula- est. Structured observations are especially useful for tions.

Examples of populations are all students taking studying behaviors that are difficult to observe natu- a course on adult development and aging or all Asian rally. For example, how people react to emergencies is American widows. Almost all studies include only a hard to study naturally because emergencies generally sample of people, which is a subset of the population.

A researcher could Researchers must be careful to ensure that their sample stage an emergency and watch how people react. How- is truly representative of the population of interest. An ever, whether the behaviors observed in staged situ- unrepresentative sample can result in invalid research. You would, quite correctly, decide that this sample is not represen- Sampling Behavior with Tasks.

Likewise, police training Americans. Are these samples representative of all peo- includes putting the candidate in a building in which ple in the United States? In the world? Sometimes, but targets pop up that may be either criminals or innocent not always. Be careful not to assume that findings from bystanders.

This approach is popular with gerontologi- this group apply to people of other groups. In addition, cal researchers because it is so convenient. The main some developmental issues have not been studied in question with this approach is its validity: Does the all ethnic groups and cultures. For example, the U. For example, asking people to learn grocery lists ethnic groups. To change this, some U.

Thus in the future ory test. Discovering such cause-and-effect relations is we may gain a broader understanding of aging. General Designs for Research Finally, we must note that age cannot be an inde- Having selected the way we want to measure the topic pendent variable, because we cannot manipulate it. At best, we can find age-related effects of an their work: experimental studies, correlational stud- independent variable on dependent variables.

The specific design chosen for research depends in large part on the questions the Correlational Design. In a correlational study, inves- researchers are trying to address. In the simplest correlational Experimental Design. Suppose we wanted to know could gather groups of older adults and try the follow- whether the amount of time spent studying a grocery ing. We could randomly assign the participants into list such as one that Sarah might create was related to three groups: those who are taught to use imagery, how many items people remember at the store.

To find those who are taught to use lists, and those who are out, the researcher would measure two things for each not taught to use anything. After giving all the groups person in the study: the length of study time and the time to learn the new technique where appropriate , number of items purchased correctly.

Correlations can range from —1. In our case, the key 1. In a study 2. More generally, in an experiment the researcher 3. One group, the experimental group, number of groceries remembered decreases or receives the manipulation; another group, the control increases. This sets up a situation in which the level of the key variable of interest differs across groups. Correlational studies do not give definitive informa- In addition, the investigator exerts precise control tion about cause-and-effect relations; for example, over all important aspects of the study, including the the correlation between study time and the number of variable of interest, the setting, and the participants.

However, correlational studies do provide impor- effect relations about that variable. In our example, tant information about the strength of the relation we can conclude that type of instruction how people between variables, which is reflected in the absolute.

Moreover, because within the person and are not caused by the passage of developmental researchers are interested in how vari- time per se. In fact, most developmental research belongs. In general, cohort effects correspond to the is correlational at some level because age cannot be normative history-graded influences discussed earlier. This means we can However, defining a cohort may not be easy. Cohorts describe a great many developmental phenomena, but can be specific, as in all people born in one particu- we cannot explain very many of them.

As described earlier, each generation is exposed to dif- Case Studies. Sometimes researchers cannot obtain ferent sets of historical and personal events such as measures directly from people and are able only to World War II, tablet computers, or opportunities to watch them carefully. In certain situations, researchers attend college. Later in this section we consider evi- may be able to study a single individual in great detail in dence of how profound cohort effects can be.

This technique is especially useful when Time-of-measurement effects reflect differences researchers want to investigate very rare phenomena, stemming from sociocultural, environmental, historical, such as uncommon diseases or people with extremely or other events at the time the data are obtained from the high ability. Identifying new diseases, for example, participants. For example, data about wage increases begins with a case study of one individual who has a given in a particular year may be influenced by the pattern of symptoms that is different from any known economic conditions of that year.

If the economy is syndrome. Case studies are also very valuable for open- in a serious recession, pay increases probably would ing new areas of study, which can be followed by larger be small. In contrast, if the economy is booming, pay studies using other methods e. How- increases could be large. Clearly, whether a study is ever, their primary limitation is figuring out whether conducted during a recession or a boom affects what is the information gleaned from one individual holds for learned about pay changes.

In short, the point in time others as well. Once the general design is chosen, most gerontologists The three building-block variables age, cohort, must decide how to measure possible changes or age and time of measurement can be represented in a sin- differences that emerge as people develop.

For example, gle chart, such as the one shown in Table 1. Cohort if we want to know how people continue or fail to use is represented by the years in the first column, time imagery or lists in remembering grocery items as they of measurement is represented by the years across get older, we will want to use a design that is particularly the top, and age is represented by the numbers in the sensitive to developmental differences. Such designs are based on three key variables: age, cohort, and time of Table 1.

Once we have considered these, we will examine the specific designs for studying development. Age effects reflect differences caused by underlying 30 40 50 60 processes, such as biological, psychological, or sociocul- 20 30 40 50 tural changes. Although usually represented in research Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measure- ment by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. Note that age is computed by subtract- data about age differences and age changes: cross- ing the cohort year from the time of measurement.

In conducting adult development and aging research, investigators have attempted to identify Cross-Sectional Designs. In a cross-sectional study, and separate the three effects. This has not been easy, developmental differences are identified by testing people because all three influences are interrelated. If one is of different ages at the same time. Any single column interested in studying year-olds, one must neces- in Table 1.

Cross- sarily select the cohort that was born 40 years ago. In general, confounding is any situation Cohort in which one cannot determine which of two or more 50 60 70 80 effects is responsible for the behaviors being observed.

Developmental researchers must look at the Cross-sectional research has several weaknesses. Doing so Because people are tested at only one point in their devel- necessarily requires that researchers understand the opment, we learn nothing about the continuity of devel- distinction between age change and age difference.

To discover an age change, would be tested at age 50 or 80, but not both. Cross- one must examine the same person in this case, Leah sectional studies also are affected by cohort effects, or Sarah at more than one point in time.

An age dif- meaning that differences between age groups cohorts ference is obtained when at least two different people may result as easily from environmental events as from of different ages are compared.

Leah and Sarah may developmental processes. Cross-sectional studies not remember as many grocery items as a person of assume that when the older participants were younger, age Even though we may be able to document sub- they resembled the people in the younger age groups in stantial age differences, we cannot assume they imply the study. We do not know whether Leah or Sarah it difficult to know why age differences are found in a has changed since she was 40, and of course we do cross-sectional study.

In short, age and cohort effects are not know whether the year-old will be any differ- confounded in cross-sectional research. In some cases age differences reflect age Despite the confounding of age and cohort and changes, and in some cases they do not. The reason is a prag- grow older , we should design our research with this matic one: Because all the measurements are obtained goal in mind. Moreover, different research questions at one time, cross-sectional research can be conducted necessitate different research designs.

We next consider more quickly and inexpensively than research using the most common ways in which researchers gather other designs. In addition, one particular variation of. Your first impulse may be to gather a group 50 60 70 80 of younger adults and compare their performance with that of a group of older adults. Typically, such studies 40 50 60 70 compare samples obtained in convenient ways; younger 30 40 50 60 adults usually are college students, and older adults often 20 30 40 50 are volunteers from senior centers or church groups.

Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measure- Although the extreme age groups design is very ment by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. Three concerns are key. First, the samples are are tested repeatedly over a span of days or weeks, typically not representative, so we must be very careful not to with the aim of observing change directly as it occurs.

For read too much into the results; findings from studies example, researchers might test children every week, on extreme age groups may not generalize to people starting when they are 12 months old and continuing other than ones like those who participated. Second, until 18 months. Finally, extreme age group designs assume Microgenetic studies are particularly useful in the measures used mean the same thing across both tracking change as a result of intervention.

For exam- age groups. Measures may tap somewhat different con- ple, older adults could be given a series of measures structs, so the reliability and validity of each measure of memory ability and then be interviewed about their should be checked in each age group.

A series of training sessions Despite the problems with cross-sectional designs about how to improve memory could be introduced in general and with extreme age groups designs in par- including additional memory tests and interviews, ticular, they can provide useful information if used followed by a posttest to find out how well the par- carefully. Most importantly, they can point out issues ticipants learned the skills in which they were trained.

In a longitudinal study, the the memory tests or in the details in the interviews for same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at reasons why some people improved while others did different points in their lives.

As the name implies, a not. This would provide a vivid portrait of change over longitudinal study involves a lengthwise account of the period of the intervention. A longitudinal design is represented by any hori- we say why they occurred? Because only one cohort is zontal row in Table 1. A major advantage of longitudi- studied, cohort effects are eliminated as an explanation nal designs is that age changes are identified because we of change. However, the other two potential explana- are studying the same people over time.

Usually the repeated testing of longitudinal studies For example, suppose we wanted to follow the extends over years, but not always. In a microgenetic cohort over time. If we wanted to test these individuals study, a special type of longitudinal design, participants when they were 20 years old, we would have had to do. Consequently, any changes we identify could involving the confounding of two effects. These effects result from changes in underlying processes or factors are age and cohort in cross-sectional designs, and age related to the time we choose to conduct our measure- and time of measurement in longitudinal designs.

For instance, if we conducted a longitudinal study These confounds create difficulties in interpreting of salary growth, the amount of salary change in any behavioral differences between and within individuals, comparison could stem from real change in the skills as illustrated in the How Do We Know? Some and worth of the person to the company or from the eco- of these interpretive dilemmas can be alleviated by nomic conditions of the times. In a longitudinal study using more complex designs called sequential designs, we cannot tell which of these factors is more important.

Keep in mind, though, Longitudinal studies have three additional poten- that sequential designs do not cure the confounding tial problems. First, if the research measure requires problems in the three basic designs. Practice effects Table 1. Second, we may have a Cohort problem with participant dropout because it is difficult 50 60 70 80 to keep a group of research participants intact over the 40 50 60 70 course of a longitudinal study.

Participants may move, 30 40 50 60 lose interest, or die. Participant dropout can result in two different outcomes. We can end up with positive 20 30 40 50 selective survival if the participants at the end of the Cohort is represented by the years in the first column, time of measure- ment by the years across the top, and age by the values in the cells. In contrast, we could have negative selec- tions of cross-sectional or longitudinal studies.

In the tive survival if the participants at the conclusion of the table, a cross-sequential design consists of two or study were initially lower on an important variable more cross-sectional studies conducted at two or more e. These multiple cross-sectional who were initially less healthy. For that our ability to apply the results to other groups is example, we might compare performances on intelli- limited. The difficulty is that only one cohort is fol- gence tests for people between ages 20 and 50 in lowed.

Whether the pattern of results that is observed and then repeat the study in with a different in one cohort can be generalized to another cohort group of people aged 30 to Thus researchers using longitudinal Table 1. A longitudinal sequential design consists of process that is unique to that cohort.

Each longitudinal design in the sequence time and usually are expensive, they have not been begins with the same age range and follows people for used very often. However, researchers now recognize the same length of time.

For example, we may want to that we badly need to follow individuals over time to begin a longitudinal study of intellectual development further our understanding of the aging process. Thus, with a group of year-olds in , using the longitudinal studies are becoming more common. We would then follow this cohort for a period of years. In , we would begin a second longitudi- Sequential Designs. Thus far, we have considered nal study on year-olds, using the cohort, and two developmental designs, each of which has problems follow them for the same length of time as we follow.

In the s, little information was available study. What there was showed a developmental pat- he was able to estimate the importance of selection tern of relative stability or slight decline, quite different effects, a major improvement over previous research. The obtained in cross-sectional studies. To provide a more most serious issue in any study in which participants thorough picture of intellectual change, K. Warner are followed over time is confidentiality.

Because peo- Schaie began the Seattle Longitudinal Study in Schaie used standardized tests of primary information secure. Among the many impor- as logical reasoning and spatial ability. Over the abilities over time and cohort effects. As you can see course of the study, more than 5, individuals have in Figure 1. Cohort differences were also found. To provide a born earlier. An example of the latter is that older thorough view of intellectual change over time, Schaie cohorts outperformed younger ones on number skills invented a new type of design—the sequential design.

These cohort effects probably. Warner Schaie and Faika A. Zanjani, in Handbook of Adult Development and Learning, ed. Hoare, p. Copyright Mean T-Scores. Verbal meaning Spatial orientation 40 Inductive reasoning Number 35 Word fluency. Additionally, older groups did not Being married to a person with high cognitive have calculators or computers, so they had to do math- status ematical problems by hand.

Three points showed unusual patterns. For example, some individu- are clear. First, intellectual development during adult- als showed steady declines in most abilities beginning hood is marked by a gradual leveling off of gains, in their 40s and 50s, others showed declines in some followed by a period of relative stability, and then abilities but not others, but some people showed little a time of gradual decline in most abilities.

Second, change in most abilities over a year period. Such these trends vary from one cohort to another. Third, individual variation in developmental patterns means individual patterns of change vary considerably from that average trends, like those depicted in the figures, person to person.

By attending to these influences throughout ties are organized in people does not change over time adulthood, we can at least stack the deck in favor of Schaie et al. This finding is important because maintaining good intellectual functioning in late life. Additionally, Schaie comprehensive ever conducted, it is limited. Studying identified several variables that appear to reduce the people who live in different locations around the world risk of cognitive decline in old age: would provide evidence as to whether the results are limited geographically.

Additional cross-cultural evi- Absence of cardiovascular and other chronic dence comparing people with different economic back- diseases grounds and differing access to health care would also Living in favorable environmental conditions provide insight into the effects of these variables on such as good housing intellectual development.

Number 10 between and Word fluency Intellectual ability This design helps clarify whether the proposed studies before any data are collected. Only longitudinal effects found in a single longitudinal with the approval of this panel can scientists begin study are cohort-specific or are more general findings.

Likewise, each time a component of a study because they are costly. Trying to follow many people is changed, the review panel must be informed and over long periods of time, generating new samples, and give its approval. Clearly, this type of commitment to e. The following essential guidelines are the value of using different methods to study the same included in all of these codes: phenomenon.

The advantage of this approach is that Minimize risks to research participants. Use meth- conclusions are most convincing when the results are ods that have the least potential for causing harm the same regardless of method.

During the In reality, though, findings are often inconsistent. Prospective participants must be told the What results should we believe? What should we con- purpose of the project, what they will be asked to clude? In conducting a discontinue participation at any time without pen- meta-analysis, investigators find all studies published alty, that they are entitled to a complete debriefing on a topic over a substantial period of time e.

After the study has been explained, participants Thus, meta-analysis is a particularly powerful tool sign a document that says they understand what because it allows scientists to determine whether a they will do in the study.

Special caution must be finding generalizes across many studies that used dif- exercised in obtaining consent for the participa- ferent methods. In addition, meta-analysis can reveal tion of children and adolescents, as well as people the impact of those different methods on results. In these cases, consent from a parent, legal Choosing a good research design involves more than guardian, or other responsible person, in addition just selecting a particular method.

Researchers must to the agreement of the person him- or herself, is determine whether the methods they plan on using necessary for participation. That is, when designing a research study, Avoid deception; if participants must be deceived, investigators must do so in a way that does not vio- provide a thorough explanation of the true nature late the rights of people who participate.

To verify that of the experiment as soon as possible. Consequently, investigators may provide partici- These ethical principles provide important protec- pants with partial information about the study tions for participants and investigators alike.

By treat- or even mislead them about its true purpose. Results should be anonymous or confidential. When anonymity is not possible, research local United Way organization, how might you results should be confidential, which means the determine through research whether the programs identity of participants is known only to the inves- you fund actually have the outcomes they claim?

The requirement for informed consent is very important. Elected officials and others who create policy taken.

In terms of social policies affecting older adults, sional organizations, have published guidelines outlin- the data obtained through the use of the research ing some of these protections. For example, when the designs discussed earlier are critical. In addition, the researcher must describe the elimination of nearly all mandatory retirement rules procedures to the participant and still obtain the par- in the s.

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This comprehensive book helps readers process a clear picture of adult development and aging with the help and results of intensive scientific research. It challenges common stereotypes about this subject matter, and interprets the research data into an optimistic yet realistic appraisal of the many problems faced by the elderly in today's society.

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